The role of properly timed and qualitatively controlled rehabilitation and maintenance measures in preserving a pavement’s surface quality and ensuring that the structure lasts in serviceable condition through its design life and beyond is well recognized. This book explores the methods of structural and functional evaluation of flexible and rigid pavements for gathering critical data on the condition of pavements to enable strategic decision making with regard to rehabilitation/maintenance measures under budgetary constraints. It provides detailed descriptions of the state-of-the-art equipment/ devices/techniques used in these evaluations for determining parameters of relevance such as road roughness, skid resistance and existing strength of pavements. Several solved examples are included in the book to give readers a hands-on approach on the various techniques of measurements and evaluation of pavement condition. The significance of a pavement management system in providing a systematic, efficient, consistent and cost-effective decision making mechanism for optimising the maintenance of road networks is explored in detail along with implementation aspects.
Some of the salient features of the book are:
R Srinivasa Kumar is a faculty member in the Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad. He is the author of Textbook of Highway Engineering ( 2011), Pavement Design (2013) and Transportation Engineering: Railways, Airports, Docks and Harbours (2014) published by Universities Press.
Preface Acknowledgements 0 Pavement Types and Their Functional Aspects 0.1 Introduction 0.2 Functions of Pavement Structure 0.3 Type of Pavements 0.3.1 Flexible Pavement 0.3.2 Rigid Pavement 0.3.3 Composite Pavements 0.4 Design Factors in General 0.4.1 Distribution of Wheel Load on the Pavement 0.4.2 Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL) 0.4.3 Sub-grade Strength 0.4.4 Pavement Material Characteristics 0.4.5 Other Factors 0.5 Exercises 1 Introduction to Pavement Evaluation 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Purpose 1.3 Classification of Pavement Evaluation Methods 1.4 Performance Evaluation of Pavements 1.4.1 Functional Evaluation 1.4.2 Structural Evaluation 1.5 Economic Evaluation of Pavements 1.6 Pavement Maintenance Management System 1.6.1 Concept of Pavement Evaluation and Maintenance Management 1.7 Concluding Remarks 1.8 Exercises 2 Introduction to Functional Evaluation of Pavements 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Functional Evaluation 2.2.1 The Purpose of Functional Evaluation 2.3 Pavement Inventory 2.3.1 Issues Related to Data Collection 2.3.2 Sampling Data 2.3.3 Sample Interval 2.3.4 Referencing 2.3.5 Frequency of Sampling 2.3.6 Width between Wheel Paths 2.3.7 Traffic Management during Data Collection 2.4 Types of Functional Evaluations 2.5 The Serviceability Concept 2.6 Exercises 3 Pavement Roughness Measurement Systems 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Classification of Roughness Measuring Equipment 3.3 The International Road Roughness Experiment (IRRE) 3.4 The International Roughness Index (IRI) 3.4.1 Quarter-car Model 3.4.2 Ride Number (RN) 3.5 The World Bank Recommended Classification 3.6 Exercises
4 Contact Type Equipment (Part 1) 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Static and Non-static Type Equipment 4.3 Rod and Level Survey 4.4 The Straightedge 4.5 Rolling Straightedge 4.6 TRL Beam Static Profilometer 4.7 CHLOE Profilometer 4.8 The California Profilograph and Models 4.8.1 Ames Profilograph 4.8.2 Profile Index from California Profilograms 4.9 TRL MERLIN 4.10 The DipstickTM 4.11 The ROMDAS Z-250 Reference Profiler 4.12 The ARRB Walking Profilometer 4.13 SurPRO 2000 and SurPRO 3500 4.14 CS8800 Walking Profiler 4.15 Exercises
5. Contact-type Equipment (Part 2): Response-type Road Roughness Measuring System (RTRRMS) 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Advantages of RTRRM Systems 5.1.2 General Limitations of RTRRM Systems 5.2 Roughometers 5.3 The BPR Roughometer 5.4 The Portland Cement Association (PCA) Meter 5.5 The Mays Ride Meter 5.6 The TRL 5th Wheel Trailer-mounted Bump Integrator 5.6.1 Operating Principle of the Mechanical Model 5.6.2 Correlation Studies between Index Values BI and D-value of MERLIN 5.7 The miniROMDAS Bump Integrator 5.8 The NAASRA Roughness Meter 5.9 The ARRB Roughometer III 5.10 Exercises 6 Introduction to Non-contact Type Profilers (Part 1) 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Type-A Profilers (Without Inertial Transducer) 6.3 Type-B Profilers (With Inertial Transducer) 6.4 Factors Affecting Profile Measurement 6.5 Exercises
7 Non-contact Profilers (Part 2): High-speed Profilers 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The South Dakota Profiling System 7.3 The FHWA ProRut 7.4 The Dynatest Road Surface Profiler (RSP) 7.5 International Cybernetics Corporation (ICC) MDR Profiling System 7.6 ARRB Hawk{\its eye 2000 Digital Laser Profiler (DLP) 7.7 SSI High Speed Profilers 7.7.1 Other Models of SSI 7.8 The ROMDAS Laser Profilometer 7.8.1 Visual Condition and Inventory Surveys by ROMDAS Keypad Rating Module 7.8.2 Rut Depth Surveys with ROMDAS Transverse Profile Logger 7.8.3 Rut Depth Surveys with ROMDAS Laser Rut Measurement System (LRMS) 7.8.4 ROMDAS Laser Crack Measurement System (LCMS) 7.8.5 ROMDAS DataView 7.9 Exercises
8 Non-contact Profilers (Part 3): Lightweight Profilers 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Lightweight Inertial Surface Analyser, LISA 8.3 The Dynatest 6450 Lightweight ProfilometerÒ 8.4 Laser Mounted on a Club Car of Surface Systems and Instruments (SSI) 8.4.1 Other models of SSI Lightweight Profilers 8.5 ARRB Hawk{\its eye 1000 Digital Laser Profiler (DLP) 8.6 Exercises
9 Statistical Considerations 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Statistical Acceptance for Minimum Number of Calibration Runs 9.3 Development of Correlation or Conversion Equation 9.4 Concluding Remarks 9.5 Exercises
10 Introduction to Frictional Evaluation of Pavements 10.1 Introduction to Evaluation of Frictional Properties 10.2 Pavement Surface Friction 10.2.1 Friction Indices 10.2.2 Friction Number or Skid Number 10.3 Types of Frictions Longitudinal friction Lateral or side-force friction 10.4 Mechanisms of Friction between Tyre and Pavement 10.5 Factors Affecting Surface Friction/Skid Resistance 10.6 Exercises 11 Pavement Surface Texture 11.1 Types of Textures 11.2 Texture Measurement Methods 11.3 Static Methods 11.3.1 Sand Patch Test 11.3.2 Grease Patch Test 11.3.3 Outflow Meter (OFM) 11.3.4 Circular Texture Meter (CTM) 11.3.5 Photogrammetric Technique 11.3.6 Digital Image Processing 11.4 High-speed Methods 11.4.1 ROSANv Surface Texture Measuring System 11.5 Exercises
12 Friction Measurement Methods (Part 1) 12.1 Skid Resistance/Friction Measurement Methods 12.2 Full-scale Measurement of Friction 12.2.1 Comparison between Variable-slip and Fixed-slip Modes 12.3 Spot Friction Measuring Equipment 12.3.1 TRL Portable Skid Resistance Tester 12.3.2 Polished Stone Value (PSV) Test 12.3.3 Dynamic Friction Tester (DFT) 12.3.4 The VTI Portable Friction Tester 12.3.5 The Micro GripTester 12.4 Exercises
13 Friction Measurement Methods (Part 2) 13.1 Continuous Friction Measuring Equipment 13.2 Locked-wheel Friction Test Devices 13.2.1 Dynatest 1295 Pavement Friction Tester (PFT) 13.2.2 The ICC Pavement Skid Friction Test System 13.3 Side-force Friction Test Devices 13.3.1 The TRL SCRIM 13.3.2 Mu-Meter 13.4 Fixed-slip Friction Test Devices 13.4.1 GripTester 13.4.2 Saab Friction Tester 13.4.3 The Swedish Skiddometer BV11 13.4.4 Dynatest 6875H Highway Slip Friction Tester 13.4.5 Dynatest 6875 Runway Friction Tester 13.5 Variable-slip Friction Test Devices 13.5.1 The IMAG Trailer 13.5.2 Norsemeter ROAR 13.6 Vehicle Braking Deceleration Rate Measurement 13.6.1 The Vericom Accelerometer 13.7 Stopping Distance Measurement 13.8 Exercises
14 Wet Pavement Friction Models 14.1 The Need for Harmonising Friction Measuring Devices 14.2 Applications/Benefits of Using IFI 14.3 The PIARC Experiment 14.4 The PIARC Friction Model 14.4.1 Harmonisation of Friction Measurement Devices 14.5 The Rado IFI Model 14.6 Comparison between the PIARC Model and Rado Model 14.7 Other Models 14.7.1 The European Friction Index (EFI) 14.7.2 The Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI) 14.7.3 The International Runway Friction Index (IRFI) 14.8 Concluding Remarks 14.9 Exercises
15 Pavement Friction Management System (PFMS) 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Concept of Pavement Friction Management 15.3 Pavement Friction Management System (PFMS) 15.3.1 Minimum Level of Friction Demand 15.3.2 Survey Methodology 15.3.3 Data Analysis as Recommended by NCHRP Project 01-43 15.3.4 Concluding Remarks on Friction Management 15.4 Exercises
16 Methodology for Design and Maintenance of Pavement Friction Courses 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Selection and Design of Friction Parameters 16.2.1 Selection of Friction Parameters 16.2.2 Design of Friction Coefficient 16.2.3 Prediction of Texture Parameter 16.3 Mineralogy and Properties of Aggregates 16.4 Laboratory Testing Program 16.4.1 Physical Characterisation 16.4.2 Mineralogical and Petrographic Properties 16.4.3 Mechanical Properties 16.4.4 Durability Properties 16.4.5 Gradation of Aggregates 16.5 Surface Texturing Practices 16.5.1 Techniques Applicable to PCC Pavements 16.5.2 Techniques Applicable to Asphalt Concrete (AC) Pavements 16.6 Exercises
17 Distress Surveys and Maintenance Alternatives for Asphalt Concrete Pavement 17.1 General Introduction to Distress Surveys 17.2 Distress Definition in General 17.3 The Significance of Distress Measurement 17.4 Categorisation of Distresses in Asphalt Pavement 17.5 Identification, Causes and Measurement of Distresses 17.5.1 Alligator or Crocodile or Fatigue Cracking 17.5.2 Longitudinal Cracking 17.5.3 Transverse Cracking 17.5.4 Block Cracking 17.5.5 Edge Cracking 17.5.6 Slippage Cracks 17.5.7 Delamination or Peeling 17.5.8 Edge Drop Off 17.5.9 Joint Cracking 17.5.10 Random Cracking 17.5.11 Deterioration of Patch Surface 17.5.12 Bleeding or Flushing 17.5.13 Polished Aggregate 17.5.14 Corrugations and Shoving 17.5.15 Upheaval or Frost Boil 17.5.16 Ageing 17.5.17 Rutting 17.5.18 Potholes 17.5.19 Ravelling 17.5.20 Stripping 17.6 Symbols for Distresses Observed in Asphalt Pavement 17.7 Maintenance and Rehabilitation Alternatives 17.8 Exercises
18 Distress Surveys and Maintenance Alternatives for Portland Cement Concrete Pavement 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Categorisation of Distresses in Rigid Pavement 18.3 Identification, Causes and Measurement of Distresses 18.3.1 Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking 18.3.2 Meander Cracking 18.3.3 Corner Cracking/ Break 18.3.4 D-Cracking 18.3.5 Map Cracking 18.3.6 Shattered Slab 18.3.7 Punch-outs 18.3.8 Deterioration of Patch Surface 18.3.9 Spalling 18.4 Pop-outs 18.4.1 Polishing and Wearing 18.4.2 Scaling 18.4.3 Shallow Reinforcing 18.4.4 Blowups 18.4.5 Faulting 18.4.6 Water Bleeding and Pumping 18.4.7 Frost Heave 18.4.8 Settling of Pavement 18.4.9 Elevated or Depressed Manhole and Inlet Cracks 18.4.10 Deformation/ Separation of Curb and Shoulder 18.4.11 Lane-to-Shoulder Drop-off 18.5 Symbols of Distresses Observed in Rigid Pavements 18.6 Maintenance and Rehabilitation Alternatives 18.7 Exercises
19 Structural Evaluation of Pavements Using Benkelman Beam and Falling Weight Deflectometer 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Purpose of Structural Evaluation of Pavements 19.3 Types of Structural Evaluation Methods 19.4 Methods of Structural Evaluation 19.4.1 Desirable Features of the Equipment 19.5 Structural Evaluation by Static Loading 19.5.1 Working Principle of the Benkelman Beam (BB) 19.5.2 Calibration of BB 19.5.3 Pavement Condition Survey 19.5.4 Method of Measurement of Rebound Surface Deflections 19.5.5 Calculation of Deflection Values 19.5.6 Correction for Temperature Variations 19.5.7 Correction for Seasonal Variations 19.5.8 Traffic Considerations 19.5.9 Delineation of Homogenous Sub-sections of the Road Stretch 19.5.10 Characteristic Deflection 19.5.11 Design of Overlay 19.5.12 Limitations of the BB Method 19.6 Structural Evaluation by Steady-state Vibratory Loading 19.7 Structural Evaluation by Impulse Loading 19.7.1 Working Principle of the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) 19.7.2 Working Principle of a Geophone 19.8 Models of Falling Weight Deflectometer 19.9 Structural Evaluation of Flexible Pavement Using FWD 19.9.1 Deflection Bowl Shape Characteristics 19.10 Back-calculations of Layer Moduli from FWD Test Data 19.10.1 Historical Methods 19.10.2 Microcomputer Methods 19.10.3 Temperature Correction 19.10.4 Selection of Pavement Layer Moduli 19.11 An Example Problem of Back-calculation of Layer Moduli 19.12 Uses of Back-calculated Pavement Layer Moduli 19.13 Structural Evaluation of Rigid Pavement Using FWD 19.13.1 Back-calculation of Rigid Pavement Material Response Parameters 19.13.2 Load Transfer across a Crack or Transverse Joint 19.13.3 Load Transfer Analysis 19.14 Exercises
20 Structural Evaluation of Unbound Granular and Sub-grade Layers Using Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Development of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer Test (DCPT) 20.3 The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) 20.3.1 Terminology Used for Indicating the DCP Test Value 20.4 Material Testing with DCP 20.4.1 Automated and Instrumented DCP 20.5 Determination of DCP Index (DCPI$_{\theta ^\circ $) Value 20.6 Factors Affecting DCP Test Results 20.7 Correlation of the DCPIq° Value with Other Standard Tests Values 20.7.1 Relationships between DCPIq° and CBR Values 20.7.2 Relationships between DCPIq° and Back-calculated Sub-grade Modulus Values 20.7.3 Relationships between AASHTO Layer Coefficients and DCPI Values 20.7.4 Relationships between DCP and Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of Lime Treated Sub-grade 20.7.5 Applications of DCP Test Data 20.8 Limitations of DCP 20.9 Exercises
21 Structural Evaluation of Pavements Using Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) 21.1 Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) 21.2 Uses of HVS 21.3 The HVS in Use 21.3.1 Mobility 21.3.2 Hydraulic Loading 21.3.3 Simulation of Environmental Influences Road Surface Deflectometer (RSD) 21.4 Exercises
22 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): An Effective NDT Tool for Pavement Evaluation 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Working Principle of GPR 22.2.1 Parameters Used for Structural Evaluation of Pavements by GPR Surveys Types of GPR 22.3 Advantages of GPR Testing 22.4 Limitations of GPR Technology 22.5 Review of Literature on Applications of GPR 22.5.1 On Bituminous/Unbound Pavement 22.5.2 Subsurface Explorations 22.5.3 Concrete Pavements 22.5.4 Quality Assurance/Quality Control 22.6 Other Applications 22.7 Cement Concrete Pavement and Its Characterisation by GPR Technique: A Case Study 22.7.1 Casting of Cement Concrete Slab Pavement 22.7.2 Interpretation of the Laboratory Tested GPR Data 22.7.3 Field Tests 22.8 Conclusions 22.8.1 Recommendations 22.9 Exercises 23 Pavement Drainage Design 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Drainage Considerations 23.2.1 Surface Drainage System 23.2.2 Sub-surface Drainage System 23.3 Exercises
24 Pavement Condition Rating Methods 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Visual Distress Condition Surveys 24.3 The Need for Distress Condition Rating 24.4 Methods of Conducting Pavement Condition Surveys 24.4.1 Manual Pavement Condition Surveys 24.5 Pavement Condition Indices and Rating Methods 24.5.1 The Concept of Present Condition Index (PCI) 24.5.2 The ASTM Method of Determining PCITM 24.5.3 Present Serviceability Rating (PSR) and Present Serviceability Index (PSI) 24.5.4 Pavement Quality Index (PQI) of Mn/DOT 24.5.5 The Oregon DOT Method of Pavement Distress Reporting 24.6 Forensic Investigations on Pavement 24.7 Interpretation of a Condition Rating 24.8 Pavement Condition Audit 24.9 Concluding Remarks 24.10 Exercises
25 Pavement Maintenance Management System (PMS) 25.1 Introduction 25.2 The Need for Pavement Maintenance 25.3 Types of Maintenance 25.4 Purposes of PMS 25.5 Uses of PMS 25.6 Basic Terminology of PMS 25.7 Pavement Preservation Program (PPP) 25.8 Pavement Performance (Deterioration) Curve/Model 25.9 Premature Failure of Pavement 25.10 Decision Trees 25.11 Benefits 25.12 Temporary Treatment Options 25.13 Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) 25.13.1 Approaches of LCCA 25.13.2 Economic Indicators of LCCA 25.13.3 Basic Steps in LCCA 25.14 Introduction to Ranking of M&R Projects 25.14.1 Definition of Prioritisation or Ranking 25.14.2 Need for Prioritisation 25.14.3 Stages of Priority Ranking 25.14.4 Methods of Priority Ranking 25.14.5 A Review of Ranking of M&R Projects 25.15 The Basic Approaches of PMS 25.16 Components of PMS 25.16.1 Identification of Road Network to be Managed 25.16.2 Inventory Data 25.16.3 Collection of Traffic Data 25.16.4 Field Inspection 25.16.5 Analysis of Data 25.16.6 Planning and Budgeting 25.16.7 Feedback System on Maintenance Performance 25.16.8 Decision Making 25.17 PMS Project Development and Implementation 25.18 PMS Software Models 25.18.1 MicroPAVERTM : An Overview 25.18.2 MTC StreetSaverÒ and MobileRaterÒ: An Overview 25.18.3 RoadSoftÓ GIS: An Overview 25.18.4 Utah LTAP-TAMS: An Overview 25.18.5 Highway Development and Management System (HDM-4) 25.18.6 Other Software Tools 25.19 Concluding Remarks 25.20 Solved Example Problems 25.21 Exercises
References Appendix Index